Two right halves of original photo

Original photo Two left halves of original photo

Section I: A Simple Explanation For All Things Human

- why the brain is shaped the way it is

- the origin of hemispheric specialization

- the explanation for nerve decussation

Section II: A Molecular Template For All Living Things

- amino acids define what we are in every way

- fractals explain everything from large to small

Section III: Oh My God, Many Proteins Are Gay!

- the origin of homosexuality in proteins and people

- sexually explicit photos of proteins getting it on

Section IV: The Placebo - When Nothing Is Something

- how the placebo effect works when it works

- why it works for some, but not for others

(scroll down to the first section)

Section I: A Simple Explanation For All Things Human


Original Photo	Right Half Left Half	Two Right Halves	Two Left Halves

The series of photographs shown above reveal what the model would look like if her face was divided down the middle and (as seen in the last two photos) each half of her face was paired with an inverted copy of that same half. The fact that two very different faces are created using this technique is a visible representation of the UR2N1 hypothesis, but there's way more to the story than the two faces that come from this (and every) person's photograph. Behind each of those faces is a very different personality. It's as though there are two completely different people melded into one body. And by reading this website, you'll learn why the halves of every human's face (including your own) don't match exactly and why (like everyone else) you are two-in-one.

Please note that the differences in the hues and brightness of the last two photos above are due to the angle of lighting used when the original photo was taken. I tried to correct for the lighting as much as possible so that we can focus on the physical differences in the halves of the model's face. Below, I've reversed the halves from the original photo to give you a greater appreciation for how different they are in appearance.

Maybe you’re thinking that this is an unusual face – one that was specifically chosen because each half of the model's face is particularly different from the other. Well, if that's what you’re thinking, then I suggest that you closely examine your own face. And if you closely examined enough faces, you’d quickly discover how different the halves of the face are in everyone. Sometimes the difference is mild, sometimes it’s more than mild, but there’s always a difference. However, there is a very good reason for the why the halves of a face don't match exactly.

To understand why the halves of a face don’t match exactly, you will need to know about the structure of the brain. You may be surprised to learn that the brain's structure consists of halves that don’t match exactly. The photo below shows the rear view of a typical brain. The gap that divides the brain into halves runs vertically down the center of the brain.

As you may be able to tell by closely examining the photo above, although the halves of the brain have the same general structure, they aren't exact matches, and there's a very good reason for why the brain's halves don't match exactly. And once you've learned why the brain's halves don't match exactly, you'll be able to understand everything else about human beings: why we look the way that we look, why we behave in all the ways that we behave, and why some of us all too frequently behave in ways that we shouldn't.

Why The Brain's Halves Don't Match Exactly

Have you ever wondered why the human brain is shaped the way that it is? Well, in order to understand the origin of the brain's shape, you need to know that the brain’s structure is modeled after the structure of a very common type of protein known as a globular protein. There are billions of globular proteins in the human body, and as we will learn in the next section of this website, it's not merely a coincidence that the brain's structure is modeled after the structure of a globular protein. And because the brain and the globular protein are identical in both form and function, learning how a globular protein works is extremely useful for understanding how the brain works. A simple comparison between the structure of the brain and the structure of a globular protein is shown in the illustrations below.

The illustration on the left below depicts a frontal view of the brain when it’s cut in half lengthwise. The various colors used in that illustration are helpful for identifying different structural components of the brain. We'll discuss some of those structural components shortly. On the right below is an illustration of a highly magnified globular protein with a blue colored segment of DNA in the center. That illustration was created by using the structural symbols (spirals, loops, etc) that scientists commonly use for depicting the various structural components of a protein. I won’t explain why those symbols are used to depict a protein’s structure as it’s not necessary for understanding the UR2N1 hypothesis. And just so you know, even though it looks like the protein has a lot of empty spaces in it, those spaces aren’t really empty. They're actually filled with water. All proteins, including globular proteins, are made mostly of water...as is the brain.

The significance of the brain/protein structural comparison with respect to the UR2N1 hypothesis is captured by the various colors used for identifying the structural components of the protein. Again, the blue colored component in the center of the protein is a segment of DNA, and the significance of the DNA segment will be discussed in another section of this website. For now, it’s the purple and teal colored components that are of greater importance for this discussion. As shown in the illustration below, the purple and teal components are called domains, and toward the bottom of the illustration, you can see that the two domains cross over each other.

I won't explain why the domains of the protein cross over each other at this time, but please note that there is a similar crossover feature that is very important with respect to the human body. I’ll explain the significance of the crossover feature in humans shortly. Until then, I’m going to delete the lower section of the protein in future illustrations so as to avoid any distraction that the crossover feature might cause you. Below is what the protein looks like without the crossover feature.

The Two In UR2N1

In the illustrations below, you can see that if a straight line was drawn vertically through the center of the brain, the line would divide the brain into halves that are mirror images of each other structurally speaking – just as the two domains of the divided protein below are mirror images of each other structurally speaking.

The halves of the brain are composed mostly of structural components that are referred to as hemispheres. The brain is described as having two major sets of hemispheres. One set of hemispheres make up a part of the brain called the cerebrum, while the other set of hemispheres make up a part of the brain called the cerebellum. In the illustration of the brain below, you can see that the hemispheres of the cerebrum are shaded in tan and red, while the hemispheres of the cerebellum are shaded in light gray. In the illustration on the right below, I’ve filled in the body of the protein using red and gray to indicate which structural components of the protein are comparable to the hemispheres of the cerebrum and cerebellum.

The hemispheres of the cerebrum and the cerebellum are involved in the generation of reactions that influence the behavior of humans. And given that the brain's structure is modeled after the structure of a protein, it shouldn’t surprise you to learn that – in the same way that the hemispheres of the brain generate reactions that influence the behavior of a human – the domains of a protein generate reactions that influence the behavior of a protein. But as we are about to see, despite the similarity in their structure, when it comes to comparing one domain with the other or comparing one hemisphere with another, things aren't what they would appear to be.

The Same, Only Way Different

Even though the domains of a protein are mirror images of each other structurally speaking, it's important to note that there is in fact a significant difference in the molecular components from which each domain is constructed. Because of the difference in their molecular composition, each domain generates a functionally distinct reaction in response to environmental stimuli. For example, whereas the purple colored domain might generate a reaction that causes the protein to bind to a particular substance, the teal colored domain might generate a reaction that causes that same substance to be broken down into smaller parts.

In the illustration below, I’ve filled in the halves of the protein with teal and purple to emphasize the contrast in the molecular composition that differentiates one domain from the other.

Given that the brain’s structure is modeled after the structure of a protein, it shouldn't surprise you to learn that the molecular composition of the brain’s halves varies just as the molecular composition of the protein’s halves varies. In the illustration below, I’ve filled in the halves of the brain with teal and purple to emphasize the contrast in the molecular composition that differentiates one brain half from the other.

Just as the molecular variation in the domains of a protein causes each domain to generate a functionally distinct reaction, the variation in the molecular composition of the brain’s halves also causes each half of the brain to generate functionally distinct reactions. This phenomenon is evident in that one half of the brain is clearly dominant over the other half with respect to the generation of certain behavioral responses. The left half of the brain, for example, is dominant with respect to the generation of verbal responses, while the right half is dominant with respect to the generation of behavioral responses that determine spatial appropriateness (for example, how closely we stand or sit next to another person in a particular situation). And as we're about to see, this is just one example of how the brain's halves differ.

Not Exactly Exact

Although the domains of a protein appear to be mirror images of each other structurally speaking, it turns out that the variation in the molecular composition of each domain not only causes each domain to generate a functionally distinct reaction, it also produces a definite (if only slight) variation in each domain’s physical appearance. And though the variation in their molecular composition isn’t so substantial as to distort the structural similarity that the domains exhibit overall, the variation does effect the domains to the extent that one domain is not an exact mirror image of the other domain.

Of course, what's true for the protein is also true for the brain. And so it is that the variation in the molecular composition of each half of the brain also produces a definite (if only slight) variation in each half’s physical appearance. However, as is true for the protein’s domains, this variation in molecular composition isn’t so substantial as to alter the structural similarity that the brain's halves exhibit overall, but the variation does effect both halves to the extent that one half of the brain is not an exact mirror image of the other half. And the variation in appearance produced by each half's molecular composition is particularly evident with respect to one of the brain’s outermost surfaces: the face.

As seen in the illustration below, even though the halves of the face – like the halves of the brain – are mirror images of each other structurally speaking, the variation in the molecular composition of each half of the brain produces a definite (if only slight) variation in the appearance of each half of the face. In other words, the molecular composition of one half of the brain determines the appearance of one half of the face.

Now here's a really interesting fact with respect to the brain/face relationship: as it turns out, it's actually the left half of the brain that determines the appearance (as well as the motions and emotions) expressed by the right half of the face, while the right half of the brain determines the appearance (as well as the motions and emotions) expressed by the left half of the face. This cross over from one side of the brain to the other side of the body is…hey, wait a minute! Didn’t we talk about a crossover thingy a little earlier? Do you remember what we were discussing when I first mentioned it? If your answer is that we observed a crossover feature in the first protein illustration that I used, then give yourself a pat on the back because you’re absolutely correct. You may also remember that I asked you to ignore this peculiar feature earlier, but the time has come for us to talk about it's significance. And doing so will help us clear up the great crossover mystery in humans.

The Great Crossover Mystery

Below is the original illustration of the protein that I used when I first made mention of the crossover between the teal and purple colored domains in the lower section of the protein. I deleted the lower section of the illustration after it was first shown so as to avoid any distraction that the crossover feature might cause, but now we’re back to using the protein’s whole structure. And though the explanation for why a globular protein possesses a crossover feature won't be covered until later on in another section of this website, its significance with respect to the human body will become apparent to you momentarily.

As you may know, there are many features of the body’s nervous system that scientists have been unable to explain, and one of those heretofore inexplicable features relates to the fact that many of the body’s nerves cross over (or decussate) from one side of the brain to the opposite side of the body and control body parts (extremities, etc) on that opposite side. In general, the right half of the brain controls the left side of the body, while the left half of the brain controls the right side of the body. And as we learned earlier, the same is true with respect to the brain/face relationship. The illustration below shows the connection between the right half of the brain and the left half of the face and vice versa.

Given that the brain’s structure is modeled after the structure of a globular protein, and given that certain components of a globular protein exhibit a crossover feature, it isn’t surprising that comparable components of the brain would do likewise, and thus we now have an explanation for why the human body possesses a crossover feature. As you will see throughout this website, understanding the structure of a globular protein will help us unravel all of the mysteries surrounding the body and the brain in particular, including why one half of the brain (and therefore one half of the face) is so different from the other half in both appearance and function. And our knowledge of the functional differences will be especially useful for helping us understand the origins of human behavior, or more importantly perhaps, the origins of human misbehavior.

The Origins of Human Misbehavior

Because each half the brain is dominant with respect to the generation of certain behavioral responses, each half possesses a distinct personality. In other words, if a brain consisted of the same two halves (two right halves or two left halves), not only would the face of that person be very different (as seen in the photos at the beginning of this website and below), the personality behind each of those two faces would be very different as well. Those two personalities, as described briefly in the next paragraph, reveal what behavioral problems might arise if either the left half of the brain (the half that generates verbal responses) or the right half (the half that determines spatial appropriateness) was missing.


Two right halves	Two left halves

For example, if a person's brain consisted of two right halves, then we might expect that person to be very quiet and extremely (if not absurdly) conscientious of how closely he or she sits or stands next to people. You probably know a person like this, someone that you think is a snob or a weirdo because he or she doesn't speak to anyone and is very standoffish. On the other hand, if a person's brain consisted of two left halves, we might expect that person to be extremely talkative, but not at all concerned about spatial appropriateness. Perhaps you know someone that fits this description, someone like that incessantly jabbering jerk at work that's always violating your personal space. Of course, people don't actually have brains consisting of two left or two right halves, but if one half or the other of a person's brain constantly fails to generate a reaction when it should, then that person would constantly behave inappropriately.

The examples cited above will hopefully help you understand that people who exhibit odd or annoying behavior don't do so intentionally. Without a left and a right half of the brain working together, a person is unable to behave appropriately. Throughout the remainder of this website, we will explore how the brain's halves work together to generate appropriate behavior and what happens when they don't. As you will soon learn, even though each half of the brain (and therefore each half of the face) possesses a distinct identity and functionality, who you are and what you look like is the combined product of those halves, and the combined product of those halves is what the UR2N1 hypothesis is all about. Thanks for reading this section of my website. The next section follows the short list of acknowledgments below, so stay tuned for more!

“Rest in peace, Mr. Crick”

jefberry@indiana.edu

Original photo of model by Matt Hardy

Brain photo from the Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle.

Brain illustration from the Surgical Planning Laboratory, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School

Protein illustration from University College London’s Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

Web technical assistance by Jerry Neal and Orah Cullison

Section II: A Molecular Template For All Living Things

In the first section of this website, we learned that the molecular structure of a globular protein serves as the structural model for the human brain. Of course, the brain is only one component of the body, so wouldn't it be nice if we could identify a molecular model for the entire body, including the brain? Well, fortunately, I have identified such a model (which I refer to as a template), so I will now attempt to explain how the human body came to have the particular shape that it has, and the explanation goes something like this.

In the beginning, when things were first taking shape on our planet, a molecular template for all living things was formed from the interaction among the various chemicals that were present and the water that covered much of the planet. Surprisingly, this molecular template captured the shape of a very small (as in microscopic) human. I say surprisingly because at the time that this template came into being, it would be a couple billion years later before humans would arrive on the scene. So how is it that the template for all living things would take on the shape of a human long before humans actually came into existence? Well, in my way of thinking, the answer isn't as complex as it might seem.

In my way of thinking, a living thing is a living thing is a living thing, and it doesn't matter what body shape the living thing comes in, whether it has two legs or four, a long tail or no tail, or whether you call it a human or a horse or a seahorse or a horsefly, it's all the same – or at least nearly so based on the similarity of the DNA that all living things share. DNA, as you may know, contains the chemical messages that detail how various molecular components are suppose to come together to form a body of some kind, and of special interest to us is a certain group of those molecular components known as the amino acids.

A Meano Whato?

To appreciate the contribution that the amino acids make toward the existence of life, you don't necessarily need to know what the word amino means or what an acid is. What you do need to know, however, is that all of the proteins in the body are made of water and amino acids (there are twenty different types of amino acids), and if we were to remove all the water from our bodies (water accounts for over two thirds of the body's composition), the amino acids would make up well over half of what's left. Thus, it can be said that the human body is made mostly of amino acids and water.

So here's the sixty-four thousand dollar question for you: if one thing is made almost entirely of two other things, what will that one thing most likely look and act like? The answer is quite simple: that one thing will most likely look and act like the two things from which it is mostly made. Therefore, given that our bodies are made mostly of amino acids and water, it isn't surprising that the human body looks and acts like a giant amino acid stuck inside a very large water balloon. And though water is essential for all things living, it is the molecular structure of an amino acid that serves as the structural template for all living things, including humans.

The fact that the molecular structure of an amino acid serves as the structural template for the human body can be seen in – among other things – the body's skeletal structure. To illustrate this point, let's take a look at the skeletal (or molecular) structure of one of my favorite amino acids, glutamic acid, which is more commonly known as glutamate and is abbreviated as GLU. As you can see below, glutamate – like all of the amino acids – contains atoms of the following chemicals: oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), hydrogen (H), and carbon (C).

Please note that the illustration shown above is how the molecular structure of glutamate is commonly depicted, but in my way of thinking, that's how it looks when it's lying down and dehydrated. If we were to give GLU a drink of water, that might cause GLU to stand up and look something like the diagram below.

Now with a little imagination and some really bad artwork, you can see in the diagram below that an upright glutamate molecule could conceivably take on features similar to that of the happy little stick man next to it (sorry, but due to my total lack of artistic ability, I was forced to use a stick man to illustrate the human body's skeletal structure). Please note that I down-sized the components of the upper most section of GLU's body so that they would all fit in its head.

Okay, so GLU's arms and legs are quite a bit shorter than their human equivalent, but hopefully you get the general idea that the anatomical similarities shared by the bodies of glutamate and its human counterpart serve as evidence that the molecular structure of an amino acid is in fact the molecular template for life that I referred to earlier. And now that we recognize that a molecular template for life exists, we will be able to understand some things about the human body – particularly the brain – that no one has heretofore been able to explain.

GLU Got Brain

In order to fully appreciate the template of life's importance, I think that it would be beneficial for us to briefly examine in more detail one of the many anatomical features that the amino acids and humans have in common, and that feature is a brain. Below, I've included a close-up of the 'head/brain' section for both GLU and the happy little stick guy to help us with this examination.

You can see that the 'head/brain' section of glutamate shown above depicts a left brain half and a right brain half that are very different from each other with respect to their molecular composition: one atom of carbon (C) plus two atoms of oxygen (O) make up the left half, while one atom of nitrogen (N) plus three atoms of hydrogen (H) make up the right half. We won't go into why the halves of GLU's brain are made up of these particular atoms, but the fact that they are so different in their molecular composition helps to explain a lot of what we learned in the first section of this website.

In the first section, we learned that the structure of a globular protein serves as the structural model for the brain. And since we know that all proteins are made from amino acids, and given that a globular protein (as shown on the left below and in the first section of this website) has left and right halves (or domains) that are different from each other with respect to their molecular composition, we can now see that the variation in the molecular composition of the protein's halves originated with the molecular variation in the composition of an amino acid's halves and was passed on to proteins. But the transfer of this structural property doesn't end with proteins.

Given that there are billions of globular proteins in the brain, and given that the left and right halves of the brain (as shown on the right above and in the first section of this website) are different with respect to their molecular composition, we can see that the variation in the molecular composition of the brain's halves also originated with the variation in the molecular composition of the amino acid's halves. And so it is that the relatively simple structure and properties of an amino acid are replicated in the more complicated construct of globular proteins and the human body. But this repetition of form and function is not at all unusual. In fact, it's found fractally everywhere in nature. Fractally everywhere? Yes, fractally. Keep reading and you'll see what I that mean.

Fractals Are Da Bomb

When the same structural pattern and its properties are repeated in a series going from the smallest to the largest of related objects, that structural pattern is referred to as a fractal. In this case, numerous amino acids come together to form a protein, and yet the general structure of an amino acid and its properties are captured by the protein's structure and properties. And when numerous proteins come together to form a human body, the general structure of an amino acid and its properties are likewise captured by the human body's structure and properties. And because the structure and properties of an amino acid include a brain-like structure with halves that are varied in their molecular composition, the protein and the human body also possess similarly structured halves that are also varied in their molecular composition. But there's more than just this variation in molecular composition that gets passed along the fractal trail from amino acids to proteins to humans.

In addition to the differences in their molecular composition, another feature that distinguishes the left half of glutamate's brain from the right half is the electrical charge that each half possesses. Don't be concerned if you don't understand what an electrical charge is or where one comes from. For now, all you need to recognize is that the left half of GLU's brain has a negative (–) electrical charge, while the right half has a positive (+) electrical charge. You can see the (+) and (–) symbols in the halves of GLU's brain below.

Just as the variation in the molecular composition of an amino acid is preserved in the fractal transition from amino acids to proteins to humans, the electrical charge variation in an amino acid is also preserved, which means that (as shown below) the left and right halves of a globular protein as well as the left and right halves of the human brain possess the same electrical properties as those of the left and right halves of an amino acid.

Although these electrical properties are already known to exist in amino acids and proteins, no one has heretofore understood that the electrical charges are also preserved in the brain's molecular structure. And knowing that the charges exist will help us unravel another mystery regarding the brain, but first we will need to briefly consider why electrical charges matter.

Why Electrical Charges Matter

To appreciate the role that electrical charges play, I'll offer a universally recognized general rule that will hopefully help to explain why the variation in electrical charges is so important with respect to amino acids, proteins, the brain, and life in general. The rule is a simple one: things of an opposite electrical charge are attracted to each other, while things with the same electrical charge are repulsed by each other. For example, if some thing has a positive charge, it will be attracted to (and attempt to interact with) those things that have a negative charge, but it will be repulsed by (and react so as to avoid) those things that are positively charged.

So when a bunch of amino acids interact with each other, the negatively charged left brain half of an amino acid such as GLU (as shown in the middle below) will be attracted to and react so as to form a bond with the positively charged right brain half of another amino acid, while GLU's positively charged right brain half will be attracted to and react so as to form a bond with the negatively charged left brain half of yet another amino acid. As a result of the negative-to-positive linking interaction that goes on among the brain halves of all the amino acids involved in a particular reaction, a long chain of amino acids is quickly formed and that long chain of amino acids will eventually be transformed into a protein.

For our purposes, however, it's more important to note that the halves of an amino acid's brain will generate very different reactions when responding to the same thing. For example, let's say GLU and a bunch of other amino acids are on the dance floor at a big party when – as illustrated in (a) below – GLU happens to bump into the side of another amino acid in such a way that the negatively charged half of both GLU and that other amino acid are positioned next to each other. In (b), we see that the negatively charged half of GLU's brain is repulsed by the negatively charged half of that other amino acid and reacts so as to avoid interacting with it by moving away from it. However, in (c), we can see that the positively charged half of GLU's brain was attracted to the negatively charged half of that other amino acid and reacted so as to form a bond with it by moving toward it.

Given that the structure and properties of an amino acid are replicated in the structure and properties of a globular protein and the brain alike, and given that each half of an amino acid's brain will generate a completely different reaction in response to the very same thing, it isn't surprising that the brains of proteins and humans would exhibit the very same behavioral traits as described above. Of course, that's assuming that the brains of the proteins and humans involved are fully functional and properly charged.

Is Your Brain Properly Charged?

As I said a few paragraphs earlier, just as the variation in the molecular composition of an amino acid is preserved in the fractal transition from amino acids to proteins to humans, the electrical charge variation of an amino acid is also preserved. And just as the brain halves of an amino acid generate fundamentally different reactions to the same thing because of the variation in their electrical charges, each half of a protein (as shown on the left below) and each half of the human brain (as shown on the right below) will also generate a fundamentally different reaction to the same thing because each half's reaction will be based on the electrical charge that it possesses.

Because each half of a protein and each half of the human brain generates a fundamentally different reaction to the same thing, it would appear as though each half is specialized (or dominant) with respect to the generation of certain behavioral responses. For example, as I stated in the first section of this website, the protein's right half (which we now know is positively charged) might react so as to form a bond with a certain substance, while the protein's left half (which we now know is negatively charged) might generate a reaction that initiates the chemical break down of that same substance. And now we know that the halves of a protein generate different responses because of the difference in their electrical charge. Thus, it's the variation in electrical charge that explains the specialization that each half of a protein exhibits with respect to the generation of certain behavioral responses.

I also stated in the first section of this website that each half of the human brain is considered dominant with respect to the generation of certain behavioral responses. As examples of this phenomenon, I stated that the brain's left half (which we now know is negatively charged) is dominant with respect to the generation of verbal responses, while the brain's right half (which we now know is positively charged) is dominant in generating responses that determine spatial appropriateness (for example, how closely we sit or stand next to someone in a certain situation). Now we know that the brain's halves generate different responses because of the difference in their electrical charge. Thus, it is the variation in electrical charges that explains the dominance that each half of the brain exhibits with respect to the generation of certain behavioral responses.

A Properly Charged Brain in Action

So now that we have a better understanding of how and why the human brain works the way that it does, let's take a look at a rather simplistic scenario that depicts the various reactions that the brain's halves might generate based on the variation in their electrical charges. For example, let's suppose that a faithfully married heterosexual man gets on a city bus and sees an attractive woman sitting by herself near the front of the bus. A highly detailed, nearly life-like depiction of this scenario as it unfolds is shown in the illustrations below.

Because she's attractive, we'll say that the woman sitting on the bus possesses a positive charge, and as we can see in (a) above, because she is positively charged, the negatively charged left half of the man's brain – the half that is dominant with respect to verbal responses – might cause him to cheerfully say "howdy" to the woman as he walks by her because the negatively charged half of his brain is attracted to her positive charge. And as we can see in (b), the man might be tempted to sit close to the woman in order to strike up a conversation with her, but the right half of his brain would cause him to sit farther away because the positively charged right half of his brain is repulsed by the woman's positive charge. As a result, as we can see in (c), the man would end up sitting at a distance that would be appropriate – given that he is faithfully married – for this type of social interaction.

Of course, had the man not been married, the right half of his brain would have still been repulsed by the woman's positive charge to the extent that he would have ended up sitting at a distance from her that would be appropriate given the situation. For example, if the women had responded cheerfully to the cheerful "howdy" that the man directed toward her, then his brain undoubtedly would have caused him to sit closer to her. Perhaps he would have taken a seat that was one row behind and across from the woman. And if she had responded cheerfully to the man's salutation, the left side of his brain might have caused him to strike up a conversation with her, so a seat one row back and across from the woman would have allowed him to strike up a conversion without making it awkward for her to turn and talk to him - if that's what her brain was instructing her to do.

Another Section Comes To An End

In concluding this section of my website, let me explain that the brain of an amino acid makes decisions similar to the ones described in the scenario above. An amino acid's brain identifies other amino acids that it finds attractive and then positions its body in a way that it thinks is appropriate for interacting with those other amino acids. Perhaps you're thinking that I'm being silly to suggest that amino acids are able to think and behave like a human. Of course, the reality is that it's only because of them that we humans are able to think and behave!

Given that the molecular structure of an amino acid is the molecular template for all living things, I could have used the structure of an amino acid (instead of a protein) as the structural model for the human brain in the first section of this website. However, I chose to use a protein as a structural model because I think that it's easier to make the comparison using the more complex structure of a protein. Besides, the protein is merely a much larger (fractal) version of an amino acid, so it's perfectly acceptable to describe the human body as either a really big protein or an extremely large amino acid.

Lastly, you should know that I could have also used the much more complex structure of a neuron (a common type of brain cell) as a structural model for the brain in the first section, and I'll be making the neuron/brain structural comparison in another section of this website. Thus, the true fractal trail leading from amino acids to humans is one that includes the neuron, so that the trail actually goes from amino acids to proteins to neurons to humans. And stay tuned here for additional changes to the trail...changes that might offer a single template for fractally everything everywhere. Fractally everything everywhere? Yes, fractally.

Section III: Oh My God, Many Proteins Are Gay!

I thought that it might be fun to use this section of my website to address a subject that tends to cause considerable confusion and ill will among the general public. By using the information from the first two sections of this website, maybe we can clear up a misconception that has existed simply because no one has had a clue as to why things are the way they are. As we've seen in previous sections of this website, a few things are a lot easier to understand now that we know that: a) the human brain is modeled after a globular protein; and b) the molecular structure of an amino acid is the structural template for all living things, including humans.

As I stated toward the end of the previous section of this website, given that a protein is merely a much larger (fractal) version of an amino acid, and given that the human body is merely a much larger (fractal) version of both an amino acid and protein alike, it's perfectly acceptable to refer to the human body as either a really big protein or an extremely large amino acid. And in order to facilitate our discussion with respect to the subject that we'll be discussing in this section, it will be easier to illustrate certain points if I refer to the human body as a protein. Let me know if that causes a problem for anyone.

Speaking of proteins, you might be interested to know that the dude shown with his eyes popping out in the illustration that appears above the title to this section (scroll up a little if you missed him) is actually a composite of the three proteins shown below (each of the proteins has a blue colored DNA fragment attached to it). Creating a composite of proteins like that is a process that I call proteography, and each composite is what I describe as a proteograph or proteinograph. I like to think of the proteinograph at the beginning of this section as a self-portrait, but in all honesty, I'm not nearly that good looking.

The fact that these three proteins can be assembled in such a way as to capture the structure of the human body reflects the fact that the body is basically a vast collection of various proteins, all of which come together to form a much larger protein that we refer to as a body. So it seems only logical, given that humans are in essence really big proteins, that we would examine the behavior and anatomy of proteins in order to understand the behavior and anatomy of humans. And doing so is particularly helpful when it comes to explaining certain human behavioral traits such as homosexuality. As it turns out, many proteins are gay, and it's a darned good thing that they are.

Crevices & Protuberances, Oh My!

Regardless of whether we're talking about homosexual or heterosexual behavior in humans, a discussion of human sexuality ultimately boils down to what we do when we're having sex, and what we do when we're having sex ultimately boils down to what we do with our sex organs while we're engaged in sexual activity. Now, as we all know, homosexual sex means having sex with someone of the same gender, and people of the same gender, of course, have the same sex organs. So homosexuality can be defined as the sexual activity that occurs between two (or more) individuals of the same sexual anatomy.

Fortunately, just as there are certain humans that like to hook up with other humans of the same sexual anatomy, there are also certain proteins that like to hook up with other proteins that are of the same sexual anatomy. And as I said before, it's a darned good thing that there are gay proteins because the products that come from their sexual interaction include way cool and essential stuff like skin and hair and bone and teeth. I'd hate to think what life would be like if we didn't have gay proteins. Cold and butt ugly, I suppose.

Now, in order to understand how proteins in general and gay proteins in particular hook up with each other, we need to talk about a protein's sex organs. Given that humans are merely giant proteins, you shouldn't be surprised to learn that proteins have sex organs just like ours. In fact, the presence of their sex organs explains the origin of our sex organs. However, instead of talking about vaginas and penises, we'll be talking about their anatomical equivalents in proteins, and those anatomical equivalents are what scientists commonly refer to as crevices and protuberances.

I'm sure that you already know what a crevice is and what a protuberance is, but just so we are all on the same page literally and figuratively, let me provide a definition for both terms as described in the Encarta (MSN) Online Dictionary. That source defines a crevice as a "narrow crack or opening", while a protuberance is defined as "something that sticks out" or something that is "swollen or bulging". And so it is that some proteins have a narrow opening (a crevice) as their sexual organ, while other proteins have something swollen that sticks out (a protuberance) for their sexual organ. The illustration below depicts two heterosexual proteins - one with a protuberance and one with a crevice - just as they're about to get it on. WARNING: No one under the age of eighteen should view this material without adult supervision.

We Have What They Have, Only Bigger

Obviously, the definition of a crevice as a narrow opening doesn't capture all of the details of a vagina, just as the definition of a protuberance as a swollen thing that sticks out doesn't fully describe a penis, but hopefully you get the general idea regarding the similarities in the sex organs that proteins and humans possess. For example, it doesn't take a lot of imagination to see an erect penis as a protuberance, and a heterosexual man typically inserts his protuberance into a woman's vaginal crevice. And with respect to heterosexual proteins, as we might expect, sexual activity likewise consists of one protein's crevice being penetrated by another protein's protuberance.

Gay proteins, however, hook up intimately with each other in ways that involve basic physical interaction - except there's no penetration. In other words, the sexual activity of two gay proteins consists of simply making contact between two crevices or two protuberances. For example, as shown on the left below, two gay proteins (blue and red) with crevices (highlighted in green and yellow) would position themselves so that the crevice of one protein presses against the crevice of the other protein. A close-up of the crevices pressed together is shown on the right below.

With respect to the sexual activity of gay proteins with protuberances, their sexual activity might consist of one gay protein wrapping its protuberance around the protuberance of another gay protein. Seems like that would be painful, but, hey, if it works, it works. On the left below is an illustration of two gay proteins (blue and red) with protuberances (hight lighted in yellow and green) getting it on with each other, and on the right below is a close-up of what their protuberances look like with one wrapped around the other.

Although it isn't known for certain that heterosexual or homosexual activity among proteins is as satisfying as sex is for most humans, I think that it's safe to assume that it is. I mean, why else would one protein want to wrap its protuberance around another protein's protuberance unless doing so was satisfying for them? Regardless, the reason that human sexuality of all types is ultimately expressed by a crevice of some sort (a vaginal, anal, or oral cavity) being penetrated by a protuberance of some sort (a penis, tongue, finger, or toe) has everything to do with the interaction that occurs between the crevices and protuberances of proteins. However, there is one vital distinction that differentiates heterosexual proteins from homosexual proteins, and that difference has everything to do with everything.

Can You Say DNA?

Although all proteins - regardless of their sexual orientation - are equally important with respect to the preservation of life, only certain proteins actually play a role in the creation of life. And if we're going to talk about the creation of life, then DNA has to come into the discussion. DNA is the instruction booklet for creating life, but in order for DNA to do its thing, it has to hook up with certain proteins. I won't go into all the details with respect to DNA/protein interaction at this time except to describe how it defines human sexuality.

The critical factor that defines human heterosexuals and the unique reproductive function that comes from their sexual activity is this: the life creating interaction between proteins and DNA requires the penetration of a crevice by a protuberance. In other words, only heterosexual proteins can be involved in the life creating interaction that goes on between DNA and proteins, and thus only heterosexual proteins - like heterosexual humans - can participate in the natural creation of life. The illustrations below represent the two types of heterosexual proteins that hook up with DNA to create life. As illustrated on the left below, there are proteins that have protuberances and they insert their protuberances into a crevice (or groove) on DNA's body, and as shown in the illustration on the right below, there are proteins that have crevices, and it's the DNA that has a protuberance that fits into the protein's crevice.

So now we know that heterosexuality is the same for humans and proteins alike in that their life creating sexual activity consists of a crevice being penetrated by a protuberance. But if you're thinking that it's the reproduction of the species that makes humans uniquely different from proteins with respect to their life creating abilities, then you'd be wrong. As it turns out, DNA is actually the instruction booklet for producing all of the body's proteins, so when a heterosexual protein interacts with DNA, the end result is always the "birth" of a new protein. And just as is true for humans, the baby protein that comes from the interaction of DNA and a heterosexual protein might well be a flaming homosexual protein. But the gay protein's heterosexual parents, unlike many human parents, would be very proud of their homosexual child regardless of its sexual orientation. It's only the silly giant proteins (humans) that create a big fuss over homosexuality.

Yes, Virginia, They're Born That Way

So here's the bottom line: Given that our DNA is structured so as to produce a significant percentage of gay proteins, and given that humans are merely giant proteins, then it is inevitable that a significant percentage of the humans created by that same DNA are going to be gay. Therefore, the reality is that some humans are born to be participants in reproductive process, while other vitally important humans are not born to be part of the reproductive process - just as some proteins are participants in the reproductive process, while other vitally important proteins are not.

Because gay proteins play essential life supporting roles, we should appreciate the fact that gay humans are born to be functional in many essential ways other than having something to do with the natural reproduction of the species. And for those of you who think that being gay is a choice that people make, you should now realize that homosexuals have no more choice in this matter than you do in deciding what proteins and amino acids will go into making up your or your child's body. There's always a fairly high probability that human reproduction will produce a gay child, but it's totally random nonetheless. It's so random that identical twins can be born with one twin being gay and the other not.

In concluding this section, let me quote a line from a Seinfeld episode by saying, "I'm not gay...not that there's anything wrong with it!" Thanks for reading my website. And a very special "thank you" to University College London’s Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (Janet Thornton, in particular) for granting me permission to use their protein illustrations. Go UCL!

The next section of my website isn't quite ready for publication, but it won't be long, so freshen your drink, grab a snack, and hurry back for more. In the mean time, let me introduce you to my girl friend, Kit. A proteinograph of us is shown below. Don't we make a handsome couple?

Section IV:The Placebo - When Nothing Is Something

As we learned in the second section of this website, understanding the fractal transformation from amino acids to proteins to humans is the concept that allows us to explain many of the things about the human brain that have been previously shrouded in mystery. I won't repeat everything that I wrote in the second section here, but I will be using a few of the images and excerpts from that section to unravel another mystery of the brain called the placebo effect.

A placebo, as defined by Wikipedia, is a substance having no pharmacological effect that is given to an unwitting patient who supposes the placebo to be a medicine. The placebo effect is a phenomenon in which the unwitting patient, having taken a placebo in place of an actual medicine, states that his or her symptoms have been alleviated (meaning that the patient reports feeling better), and it is believed that the patient reports feeling better simply because he or she believes the placebo to be an actual medicine. But as we will learn shortly, there is a much better explanation for why some patients report feeling better after having taken a placebo.

The placebo effect is a very common event whenever a study to determine the efficacy of a new drug is conducted. In fact, it's not unusual for there to be a significant number of individuals who report feeling better after taking a placebo. That in and of itself is a curious thing, but what makes the placebo effect even more curious is that it only occurs in some, but never all, of the individuals given the placebo. But no one has ever understood why this is true…well, until now that is.

Just The Fracts, Please

To understand why the placebo effect occurs, we need to briefly review a few things from the second section of this website. First, let's review the origin of the brain's shape and structural properties. As we learned in the second section, the brain's shape and structural properties are modeled after the shape and structural properties of a globular protein, and the globular protein's shape and structural properties are modeled after the shape and structural properties of an amino acid. This is true because the shape and structural properties of an amino acid serve as the structural template for all living things, which is why all proteins are made solely of amino acids, and why the human body is made mostly of proteins. Thus, the shape and properties of the very small amino acid are captured by the shape and properties of the much larger protein and the much, much larger human brain. And, as I stated in the second section, this repetition of form and function from smallest to largest of related things is found fractally everywhere in nature. Fractally everywhere? Yes, fractally. Continue reading and you'll see what I mean.

When the same structural pattern with the same structural properties is repeated in a series going from the smallest to the largest of related objects, that structural pattern is referred to as a fractal. So if the smallest of the fractally related objects (an amino acid in this case) consists of structural halves that are similar in appearance, but those halves vary in their chemical composition and properties, then all of the larger fractally related objects (a protein and the brain) will also consist of structural halves that are similar in appearance, and those halves will also vary in their chemical composition and properties.

In other words, as shown in the illustrations below, when an amino acid (like the one partially depicted on the left below) bonds with numerous other amino acids to form a protein (like the one shown divided into halves in the center below), the general structure of an amino acid (structurally similar halves) and its properties (the variation in each half's chemical composition) are preserved in the protein's structure and properties. And when numerous proteins come together to form a part of the human body (the brain, for example, shown divided into halves on the right below), the general structure of an amino acid (the structurally similar halves) and its properties (the variation in each half's chemical composition) are likewise preserved in the brain's structure and properties.

With respect to the placebo effect, there is one property common to amino acids, proteins, and the brain that explains why some people feel better after having been given a placebo, despite the fact that the placebo has no pharmacological effect whatsoever. The one property that I'm referring to is depicted in all of the illustrations above by either a plus (+) or a negative (-) symbol. Those symbols are indicators of the electrical charge associated with a particular half, and the difference in the electrical charge between the halves is due to the difference in their chemical composition.

As you can see in the illustration above, the left half of the amino acid's structure has a negative (-) electrical charge associated with it, while the right half has a positive (+) electrical charge associated with it. And because proteins and the brain are fractally related to the amino acid, the electrical charge variation in an amino acid's structure is also preserved in the fractal transition from amino acids to proteins and humans, which means that (as shown above) the left and right halves of a globular protein as well as the left and right halves of the human brain possess the same electrical charges as those of the left and right halves of an amino acid.

Although these electrical properties are known to exist in amino acids and proteins, no one has heretofore understood that the electrical charges are also preserved in the molecular structure of each of the brain's halves. But how could they not be given that the brain is made mostly of proteins, which are made solely of amino acids? And understanding that these electrical charges exist in the brain will help unravel the mystery that is the placebo effect. However, in order to unravel that mystery, we need to know a little bit about the brain's electrical charges and how they influence our behavior. But first, let's briefly discuss electrical charges in general. I promise to keep this chemistry lesson real simple, so don't panic if you're not into the natural sciences all that much.

One's A Little Empty, The Other's A Little Too Full

When something possesses either a positive (+) or a negative (-) electrical charge, it means that thing is not stable with respect to its chemical composition. In short, if a thing has a negative charge, then that thing is missing something from its chemical composition that would otherwise make it structurally stable. On the other hand, if a thing has a positive charge, then that thing has too much of something in its chemical composition that makes it structurally unstable. For amino acids, proteins, and humans alike, stability is equal to satisfaction, so any thing with either a positive or negative electrical charge is inclined to interact with something else in such a way as to become stable.

For example, if something has a negative charge, it will be inclined to interact with those things that offer it the opportunity to obtain what it's missing from its chemical composition in order to achieve stability. Or if something has a positive charge, it will be inclined to interact with those things that will take from it whatever it is that it has too much of in its chemical composition that keeps it from being stable. So a negatively charged thing is looking to take what it's missing from another thing, while a positively charged thing is looking to give another thing whatever it is that the positively charged thing has too much of. And so it is that negatively charged things can be described as "takers", while positively charged things can be described as "givers."

Now, to explain the placebo effect, we will use the illustration that we were using earlier and shown below. We have observed that the the amino acid, the globular protein, and the brain all have structurally similar halves and each half has a different charge, and this is a very good thing for us because if our brains had only one charge or the other, we wouldn't last very long. For example, if our brains had only a positive charge and we were always looking to give of ourselves to others in order to be achieve stability (satisfaction), then we might not, for example, take (consume) what our bodies need in order to merely survive. Or if our brains were only negatively charged, we would always be looking to take things from others in order to be feel stable (satisfied), which means that we wouldn't care about pleasing anyone but ourselves, and that would make for a rather unpleasant social environment.

Because amino acids, and therefore proteins and the brain, have structural halves with different charges, we humans are inclined to both take and give, both of which are essential for preserving our bodies while maintaining our social ties. However, there is a large variation in the amount of give and take that we express individually, and more importantly, each of us is born to be either predominantly a "giver" or predominantly a "taker". In other words, some people are more inclined to take more than they give simply because the "take" or negatively charged half of their brain is larger and therefore dominant with respect to the individual's general behavior. For example, although this type of person might enroll in a study to determine the efficacy of a new drug, he or she would generally do so only because they're looking to take advantage of the free health care that the study offers. And for reasons that are about to come clear to you, the "taker" is not the type of person that would normally experience the placebo effect.

Give and Ye Might Receive The Placebo Effect

The type of people that are more likely to experience the placebo effect are those people that are predominantly "givers", meaning they are more inclined to give of themselves than to take simply because the "give" or positively charged side of their brain is larger and therefore dominant with respect to the individual's general behavior. And for these people, the "give" part of their brain's reactions is commonly expressed by participating an activity in which they feel like they're contributing to the betterment of someone else or society in general. So, for example, by participating in a study to determine the efficacy of a new drug, these individuals might report feeling better simply because of the satisfaction they achieve by giving of themselves to the study. So, despite being given a placebo, just being in the study increases the "giver's" stability (satisfaction), but since they don't know the real reason for why they feel better, they assume (like everyone else) that it's the placebo that's somehow making them feel better.

Because there is a significant variation in the degree of giving that predominantly "giver" type people must experience in order to feel stabilized (satisfied), and because the degree of satisfaction that each "giver" type may vary depending on their individual experiences during a drug study, not all "givers" will necessarily experience the degree of satisfaction that would cause them to feel satisfied (or better) after taking a placebo. Thus, not all predominantly "giver" type participants will experience the placebo effect in every situation. And because none of the predominantly "taker" type of participants are likely to experience the placebo effect, only a relatively few number of the participants in the study (those "giver" types that do experience stability) are likely to report feeling better after being given a placebo.

In closing this section, let me say that for those of you that know something about chemistry, when I'm talking about "givers" and "takers" in defining human personalities, I'm actually talking the basics of ionic bonding. I know that it sounds a bit simplistic to boil all of our behavior down to such basic properties, but that's all there is to it, ladies and germs. Conscious behavior consists of one brain half or the other reacting to the electromagnetic nature of the particular situation that we're in, while conscientious behavior is the covalent product of our brain's halves responding simultaneously to that situation. More on all that in the near future.